How Do You Know When a Behavior Is Deemed a Mental Illness
Chapter thirteen. Defining Psychological Disorders
thirteen.1 Psychological Disorder: What Makes a Behaviour Abnormal?
Learning Objectives
- Define "psychological disorder" and summarize the general causes of disorder.
- Explain why it is and so difficult to define disorder, and how the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is used to brand diagnoses.
- Describe the stigma of psychological disorders and their impact on those who suffer from them.
The focus of this chapter and the next is, to many people, the middle of psychology. This emphasis on abnormal psychology—the awarding of psychological science to agreement and treating mental disorders— is appropriate, as more psychologists are involved in the diagnosis and handling of psychological disorder than in whatsoever other endeavour, and these are probably the most important tasks psychologists face. In 2012, approximately 2.8 one thousand thousand people, or ten.1% of Canadians anile 15 and older, reported symptoms consistent with at least one of six mental or substance apply disorders in the past 12 months (Pearson, Janz, & Ali, 2013). At least a half billion people are affected worldwide. The six disorders measured by the Canadian Mental Health Survey were major depressive episode, bipolar disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and abuse of or dependence on alcohol, cannabis, or other drugs. The touch of mental illness is specially potent on people who are poorer, of lower socioeconomic class, and from disadvantaged ethnic groups.
People with psychological disorders are also stigmatized by the people effectually them, resulting in shame and embarrassment, as well equally prejudice and bigotry against them. Thus the agreement and handling of psychological disorder has broad implications for the everyday life of many people. Table 13.1, "Prevalence Rates for Psychological Disorders in Canada, 2012," shows the prevalence, the frequency of occurrence of a given condition in a population at a given time, of some of the major psychological disorders in Canada.
In this chapter our focus is on the disorders themselves. Nosotros volition review the major psychological disorders and consider their causes and their impact on the people who suffer from them. Then in Chapter fourteen, "Treating Psychological Disorders," we will plow to consider the treatment of these disorders through psychotherapy and drug therapy.
Defining Disorder
A psychological disorder is an ongoing dysfunctional pattern of idea, emotion, and behaviour that causes meaning distress, and that is considered deviant in that person'due south civilisation or guild (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007). Psychological disorders accept much in common with other medical disorders. They are out of the patient's control, they may in some cases exist treated by drugs, and their treatment is often covered by medical insurance. Like medical problems, psychological disorders have both biological (nature) likewise every bit ecology (nurture) influences. These causal influences are reflected in the bio-psycho-social model of affliction (Engel, 1977).
The bio-psycho-social model of affliction is a manner of understanding disorder that assumes that disorder is caused by biological, psychological, and social factors (Figure thirteen.1, "The Bio-Psycho-Social Model"). The biological component of the bio-psycho-social model refers to the influences on disorder that come from the operation of the individual'south trunk. Particularly important are genetic characteristics that make some people more than vulnerable to a disorder than others and the influence of neurotransmitters. The psychological component of the bio-psycho-social model refers to the influences that come from the individual, such every bit patterns of negative thinking and stress responses. The social component of the bio-psycho-social model refers to the influences on disorder due to social and cultural factors such equally socioeconomic status, homelessness, abuse, and bigotry.
To consider 1 example, the psychological disorder of schizophrenia has a biological crusade because it is known that there are patterns of genes that make a person vulnerable to the disorder (Gejman, Sanders, & Duan, 2010). But whether or not the person with a biological vulnerability experiences the disorder depends in large part on psychological factors such as how the individual responds to the stress he or she experiences, besides as social factors such as whether or non the person is exposed to stressful environments in adolescence and whether or not the person has support from people who intendance almost him or her (Sawa & Snyder, 2002; Walker, Kestler, Bollini, & Hochman, 2004). Similarly, mood and anxiety disorders are acquired in office by genetic factors such equally hormones and neurotransmitters, in part by the individual's item idea patterns, and in part by the means that other people in the social environment care for the person with the disorder. We will use the bio-psycho-social model as a framework for considering the causes and treatments of disorder.
Although they share many characteristics with them, psychological disorders are nevertheless different from medical conditions in important ways. For one, diagnosis of psychological disorders can be more difficult. Although a medical doc can see cancer in the lungs using an MRI scan or come across blocked arteries in the eye using cardiac catheterization, there is no respective test for psychological disorder. Current inquiry is starting time to provide more than evidence virtually the role of encephalon structures in psychological disorder, just for now the brains of people with severe mental disturbances often look identical to those of people without such disturbances.
Because at that place are no clear biological diagnoses, psychological disorders are instead diagnosed on the basis of clinical observations of the behaviours that the individual engages in. These observations find that emotional states and behaviours operate on a continuum, ranging from more normal and accustomed to more deviant, aberrant, and unaccepted. The behaviours that are associated with disorder are in many cases the same behaviours that we engage in during our normal everyday life. Washing one'due south hands is a normal good for you activeness, but it can be overdone by those with an obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Information technology is not unusual to worry about and try to meliorate i's body image. The dancer in Figure 13.2, "How Thin Is Besides Thin?" needs to be sparse for her career, just when does her dieting plough into a psychological disorder? Psychologists believe this happens when the behaviour becomes deplorable and dysfunctional to the person. Robert's struggle with his personal advent, as discussed at the beginning of this chapter, was clearly unusual, unhealthy, and distressing to him.
Whether a given behaviour is considered a psychological disorder is determined not just by whether a behaviour is unusual (e.g., whether it is mild anxiety versus extreme anxiety) but as well by whether a behaviour is maladaptive—that is, the extent to which information technology causes distress (e.yard., hurting and suffering) and dysfunction (impairment in one or more important areas of operation) to the private (American Psychiatric Clan, 2013). An intense fear of spiders, for instance, would not be considered a psychological disorder unless information technology has a significant negative impact on the sufferer'southward life, for instance past causing him or her to be unable to step exterior the house. The focus on distress and dysfunction means that behaviours that are simply unusual (such equally some political, religious, or sexual practices) are not classified every bit disorders.
Put your psychology chapeau on for a moment and consider the behaviours of the people listed in Table 13.two, "Diagnosing Disorder." For each, indicate whether you lot recall the behaviour is or is not a psychological disorder. If you're not sure, what other information would you need to know to exist more than sure of your diagnosis?
| [Skip Tabular array] | |||
| Aye | No | Demand more data | Clarification |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jackie frequently talks to herself while she is working out her math homework. Her roommate sometimes hears her and wonders if she is okay. | |||
| Charlie believes that the noises fabricated past cars and planes going by outside his house have cloak-and-dagger meanings. He is convinced that he was involved in the kickoff of a nuclear war and that the merely way for him to survive is to detect the answer to a hard riddle. | |||
| Harriet gets very depressed during the winter months when the light is low. She sometimes stays in her pajamas for the whole weekend, eating chocolate and watching Television set. | |||
| Frank seems to be afraid of a lot of things. He worries about driving on the highway and about severe weather that may come up through his neighbourhood. But more often than not he fears mice, checking nether his bed often to see if any are present. | |||
| A worshiper speaking in "tongues" at an Evangelical church views himself equally "filled" with the Holy Spirit and is considered blessed with the gift to speak the "language of angels." | |||
A trained clinical psychologist would have checked off "need more information" for each of the examples in Table 13.2, "Diagnosing Disorder," considering although the behaviours may seem unusual, there is no articulate testify that they are distressing or dysfunctional for the person. Talking to ourselves out loud is unusual and can be a symptom of schizophrenia, only just considering we exercise information technology in one case in a while does not mean that there is anything wrong with us. Information technology is natural to exist depressed, especially in the long winter nights, but how severe should this depression be, and how long should it last? If the negative feelings last for an extended fourth dimension and begin to lead the person to miss work or classes, so they may become symptoms of a mood disorder. Information technology is normal to worry about things, just when does worry turn into a debilitating anxiety disorder? And what about thoughts that seem to be irrational, such as being able to speak the language of angels? Are they indicators of a astringent psychological disorder, or role of a normal religious experience? Over again, the answer lies in the extent to which they are (or are not) interfering with the individual's performance in society.
Another difficulty in diagnosing psychological disorders is that they frequently occur together. For example, people diagnosed with anxiety disorders also often have mood disorders (Chase, Slade, & Andrews, 2004), and people diagnosed with one personality disorder oftentimes suffer from other personality disorders as well. Comorbidity occurs when people who suffer from one disorder also suffer at the same time from other disorders. Considering many psychological disorders are comorbid, most severe mental disorders are concentrated in a minor group of people (well-nigh half-dozen% of the population) who have more than three of them (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, & Walters, 2005).
Psychology in Everyday Life: Combating the Stigma of Abnormal Behaviour
Every civilisation and society has its own views on what constitutes abnormal behaviour and what causes it (Brothwell, 1981). The Old Testament Book of Samuel tells us that as a effect of his sins, God sent King Saul an evil spirit to torment him (1 Samuel 16:14). Aboriginal Hindu tradition attributed psychological disorder to sorcery and witchcraft. During the Middle Ages information technology was believed that mental illness occurred when the trunk was infected by evil spirits, particularly the devil. Remedies included whipping, bloodletting, purges, and trepanation (cutting a hole in the skull, Effigy xiii.3) to release the demons.
Until the 18th century, the most common treatment for the mentally ill was to incarcerate them in asylums or "madhouses." During the 18th century, still, some reformers began to oppose this fell treatment of the mentally ill, arguing that mental illness was a medical trouble that had nothing to practise with evil spirits or demons. In France, one of the central reformers was Philippe Pinel (1745-1826), who believed that mental illness was caused by a combination of physical and psychological stressors, exacerbated by inhumane weather condition. Pinel advocated the introduction of exercise, fresh air, and daylight for the inmates, as well equally treating them gently and talking with them.
Reformers such as Phillipe Pinel (1745-1826), Dorothea Dix (1802-1887), Richard Yard. Bucke (1837-1902), Charles K. Clarke (1857-1924), Clifford W. Beers (1876-1943), and Clarence Yard. Hincks (1885-1964) were instrumental in creating mental hospitals that treated patients humanely and attempted to cure them if possible (Figure 13.5). These reformers saw mental disease as an underlying psychological disorder, which was diagnosed according to its symptoms and which could be cured through treatment.
Dr Richard Bucke was appointed superintendent of the Asylum for the Insane in Hamilton in 1876 and a twelvemonth later of the asylum in London, Ontario. He believed mental affliction was a failure of the human being biological adaptive process. In his attempts to reform the crude treatment of mentally ill patients he abased the practice of pacifying the inmates with alcohol or restraining them, and inaugurated regular cultural and sports events for patients.
Dr Charles Clarke was an assistant superintendent at the Hamilton asylum in the early 1880s, and later on superintendent of the asylum at Kingston, Ontario. By 1887 he had inverse the aviary from a jail to a hospital and was instructing nurses and attendants in the intendance of the mentally ill. By 1893 he was advocating that the term "asylum" exist dropped and that special hospitals be constructed for the mentally ill.
Dr Clarence Hincks, born in St Mary's, Ontario, was interested in mental health partly due to his own experiences with severe depression. In 1918, with Beers'south assistance, he organized the Canadian National Committee for Mental Hygiene, which afterward became the Canadian Mental Health Clan.
Dix was a Massachusetts schoolteacher who wrote, lectured, and informed the public and legislators well-nigh the deplorable weather in mental institutions like those shown in Effigy 13.4. She was successful in influencing a number of state legislatures either to establish or improve their mental institutions, and because of her efforts a mental hospital was built in St. John's, Newfoundland, in 1885. She also lobbied the Nova Scotia legislature and oversaw the building of a hospital for mental patients in that province.
Phillipe Pinel was a French physician who became intensely interested in mental health in the 1770s. He took a psychological approach equally opposed to the prominent biological approach that was the custom and introduced new forms of treatments that involved close contact with and careful observation of patients. Pinel visited each patient up to several times a day, engaging them in lengthy conversations, and took careful notes in an try to assemble a detailed case history and a natural history of the patient's disease. At the time, his therapy was quite opposite to the usual practices of bleeding, purging, or blistering.
Despite the progress made since the 1800s in public attitudes most those who endure from psychological disorders, people, including police, coworkers, and even friends and family unit members, still stigmatize people with psychological disorders. A stigma refers to a disgrace or defect that indicates that person belongs to a culturally devalued social group. In some cases the stigma of mental affliction is accompanied by the utilise of disrespectful and dehumanizing labels, including names such as crazy, basics, mental, schizo, and retard.
The stigma of mental disorder affects people while they are sick, while they are healing, and even after they accept healed (Schefer, 2003). On a community level, stigma can touch the kinds of services social service agencies give to people with mental illness, and the treatment provided to them and their families past schools, workplaces, places of worship, and health-care providers. Stigma about mental illness also leads to employment discrimination, despite the fact that with appropriate back up, even people with severe psychological disorders are able to hold a chore (Boardman, Grove, Perkins, & Shepherd, 2003; Leff & Warner, 2006; Ozawa & Yaeda, 2007; Pulido, Diaz, & Ramirez, 2004).
The mass media has a significant influence on society'due south attitude toward mental illness (Francis, Pirkis, Dunt, & Blood, 2001). While media portrayal of mental illness is oftentimes sympathetic, negative stereotypes still remain in newspapers, magazines, film, and television. (See the following video for an 
case.)
Idiot box advertisements may perpetuate negative stereotypes most the mentally ill. For example, in 2010 Burger King ran an advertisement chosen "The King's Gone Crazy," in which the visitor'south mascot runs around an office complex conveying out acts of violence and wreaking havoc.
Lookout man: "Burger Male monarch: The King's Gone Crazy" [YouTube]: http://www.youtube.com/lookout?v=xYA7AnVwejo
The nigh significant trouble of the stigmatization of those with psychological disorder is that it slows their recovery. People with mental problems internalize societal attitudes most mental illness, often becoming so embarrassed or ashamed that they conceal their difficulties and fail to seek handling. Stigma leads to lowered self-esteem, increased isolation, and hopelessness, and it may negatively influence the private'due south family and professional life (Hayward & Bright, 1997).
Despite all of these challenges, all the same, many people overcome psychological disorders and go on to lead productive lives. It is up to all of united states who are informed about the causes of psychological disorder and the bear upon of these conditions on people to understand, first, that mental illness is not a "fault" any more is cancer. People do non choose to have a mental illness. Second, we must all work to help overcome the stigma associated with disorder. Organizations such as the Canadian Mental Health Association (CMHA) help past working to reduce the negative impact of stigma through instruction, community action, and individual back up.
Diagnosing Disorder: The DSM
Psychologists have developed criteria that aid them determine whether behaviour should be considered a psychological disorder and which of the many disorders detail behaviours indicate. These criteria are laid out in a 1,000-page manual known as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) , a document that provides a common language and standard criteria for the nomenclature of mental disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The DSM is used past therapists, researchers, drug companies, health insurance companies, and policymakers in Canada and the United states to make up one's mind what services are accordingly provided for treating patients with given symptoms.
The first edition of the DSM was published in 1952 on the basis of census data and psychiatric hospital statistics. Since so, the DSM has been revised v times. The last major revision was the fourth edition (DSM-4), published in 1994, and an update of that certificate was produced in 2000 (DSM-IV-TR). The fifth edition (DSM-5) is the most contempo edition and was published in 2013. The Medical Council of Canada transitioned to the DSM-v recently (MCC, 2013). The DSM-IV-TR was designed in conjunction with the World Health Organisation's 10th version of the International Nomenclature of Diseases (ICD-ten), which is used as a guide for mental disorders in Europe and other parts of the globe.
The DSM does not attempt to specify the verbal symptoms that are required for a diagnosis. Rather, the DSM uses categories, and patients whose symptoms are similar to the description of the category are said to have that disorder. The DSM frequently uses qualifiers to indicate different levels of severity within a category. For instance, an intellectual disability tin can be classified as balmy, moderate, severe, or profound.
Each revision of the DSM takes into consideration new cognition also as changes in cultural norms well-nigh disorder. Homosexuality, for instance, was listed as a mental disorder in the DSM until 1973, when it was removed in response to advocacy by politically agile gay rights groups and changing social norms. The current version of the DSM lists most 400 disorders.
Although the DSM has been criticized regarding the nature of its categorization system (and information technology is frequently revised to attempt to address these criticisms), for the fact that information technology tends to classify more than behaviours as disorders with every revision (even "academic problems" are now listed every bit a potential psychological disorder), and for the fact that information technology is primarily focused on Western disease, it is nevertheless a comprehensive, practical, and necessary tool that provides a common language to describe disorder. Near insurance companies will non pay for therapy unless the patient has a DSM diagnosis. The DSM approach allows a systematic assessment of the patient, taking into account the mental disorder in question, the patient's medical condition, psychological and cultural factors, and the way the patient functions in everyday life.
Diagnosis or Overdiagnosis? ADHD, Autistic Disorder, and Asperger's Disorder
Two common critiques of the DSM are that the categorization system leaves quite a bit of ambiguity in diagnosis and that information technology covers such a wide variety of behaviours. Let's take a closer look at 3 mutual disorders —attention-arrears/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autistic disorder, and Asperger'southward disorder— that take recently raised controversy considering they are beingness diagnosed significantly more oft than they were in the past.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Zack, aged seven years, has ever had trouble settling down. He is easily bored and distracted. In schoolhouse, he cannot stay in his seat for very long and he frequently does not follow instructions. He is constantly fidgeting or staring into space. Zack has poor social skills and may overreact when someone accidentally bumps into him or uses ane of his toys. At home, he chatters constantly and rarely settles downwards to do a quiet activity, such as reading a book.
Symptoms such every bit Zack'southward are common amongst seven-year-olds, and especially among boys. But what exercise the symptoms mean? Does Zack simply take a lot of energy and a short attention bridge? Boys mature more slowly than girls at this age, and perhaps Zack volition grab up in the side by side few years. One possibility is for the parents and teachers to work with Zack to assistance him be more than circumspect, to put upwards with the behaviour, and to wait it out.
Merely many parents, often on the advice of the child's teacher, take their children to a psychologist for diagnosis. If Zack were taken for testing today, it is very likely that he would be diagnosed with a psychological disorder known every bit attending-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). ADHD is a developmental behaviour disorder characterized by problems with focus, difficulty maintaining attention, and disability to concentrate, in which symptoms first before seven years of historic period (Canadian Mental Health Association, 2014). Although it is usually commencement diagnosed in babyhood, ADHD can remain problematic in adults, and up to seven% of university students are diagnosed with information technology (Weyandt & DuPaul, 2006). In adults the symptoms of ADHD include forgetfulness, difficulty paying attention to details, procrastination, disorganized piece of work habits, and not listening to others. ADHD is about 70% more than probable to occur in males than in females (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, & Walters, 2005), and is often comorbid with other behavioural and deport disorders.
The diagnosis of ADHD has quadrupled over the by xx years, and it is now diagnosed in about one out of every 37 Canadian children. It is the most common psychological disorder amidst children in the world (Olfson, Gameroff, Marcus, & Jensen, 2003). ADHD is also being diagnosed much more oft in adolescents and adults (Barkley, 1998). Y'all might wonder what this all means. Are the increases in the diagnosis of ADHD because today's children and adolescents are actually more distracted and hyperactive than their parents were, due to a greater sensation of ADHD among teachers and parents, or due to psychologists and psychiatrists' tendency to overdiagnose the trouble? Mayhap drug companies are also involved, considering ADHD is oftentimes treated with prescription medications, including stimulants such as Ritalin.
Although skeptics argue that ADHD is overdiagnosed and is a handy excuse for behavioural issues, most psychologists believe that ADHD is a existent disorder that is acquired by a combination of genetic and ecology factors. Twin studies have found that ADHD is heritable (National Institute of Mental Wellness, 2010), and neuroimaging studies accept found that people with ADHD may take structural differences in areas of the brain that influence self-command and attention (Seidman, Valera, & Makris, 2005). Other studies take also pointed to environmental factors, such equally a female parent's smoking and drinking alcohol during pregnancy and the consumption of lead and nutrient additives by those who are afflicted (Braun, Kahn, Froehlich, Auinger, & Lanphear, 2006; Linnet et al., 2003; McCann et al., 2007). Social factors, such every bit family stress and poverty, also contribute to ADHD (Burt, Krueger, McGue, & Iacono, 2001).
Autistic Disorder and Asperger's Disorder
Jared'due south kindergarten teacher has voiced her business to Jared'south parents about his difficulties with interacting with other children and his delay in developing normal language. Jared is able to maintain heart contact and enjoys mixing with other children, but he cannot communicate with them very well. He ofttimes responds to questions or comments with long-winded speeches about trucks or another topic that interests him, and he seems to lack awareness of other children's wishes and needs.
Jared's concerned parents took him to a multidisciplinary child evolution centre for consultation. Hither he was tested past a pediatric neurologist, a psychologist, and a child psychiatrist.
The pediatric neurologist found that Jared'southward hearing was normal, and there were no signs of whatsoever neurological disorder. He diagnosed Jared with a pervasive developmental disorder, because while his comprehension and expressive language was poor, he was nonetheless able to behave out nonverbal tasks, such as cartoon a film or doing a puzzle.
Based on her observation of Jared's difficulty interacting with his peers, and the fact that he did not reply warmly to his parents, the psychologist diagnosed Jared with autistic disorder (autism), a disorder of neural development characterized past impaired social interaction and communication and past restricted and repetitive behaviour, and in which symptoms begin earlier seven years of age. The psychologist believed that the autism diagnosis was correct because, similar other children with autism, Jared, has a poorly developed ability to see the world from the perspective of others, engages in unusual behaviours such as talking about trucks for hours, and responds to stimuli, such as the sound of a car or an aeroplane, in unusual ways.
The child psychiatrist believed that Jared'southward language issues and social skills were not severe enough to warrant a diagnosis of autistic disorder and instead proposed a diagnosis of Asperger'south disorder, a developmental disorder that affects a child's ability to socialize and communicate effectively with others and in which symptoms begin earlier seven years of historic period. The symptoms of Asperger'south are almost identical to that of autism (with the exception of a filibuster in linguistic communication development), and the child psychiatrist just saw these problems as less extreme.
Imagine how Jared's parents must take felt at this point. Clearly there is something incorrect with their kid, but even the experts cannot agree on exactly what the problem is. Diagnosing problems such equally Jared's is difficult, however the number of children like him is increasing dramatically. Disorders related to autism and Asperger's disorder now impact 0.68% of Canadian children (Statistics Canada, 2003). The milder forms of autism, and particularly Asperger'due south, have accounted for virtually of this increase in diagnosis.
Although for many years autism was thought to be primarily a socially adamant disorder, in which parents who were cold, distant, and rejecting created the problem, electric current enquiry suggests that biological factors are most important. The heritability of autism has been estimated to be equally loftier as xc% (Freitag, 2007). Scientists speculate that autism is acquired by an unknown genetically determined brain aberration that occurs early in development. It is likely that several different encephalon sites are afflicted (Moldin, 2003), and the search for these areas is being conducted in many scientific laboratories.
But does Jared have autism or Asperger's? The problem is that diagnosis is not verbal (remember the idea of categories), and the experts themselves are often unsure how to classify behaviour. Furthermore, the appropriate classifications alter with time and new knowledge. Nether the DSM-five, released on May xviii, 2013, Asperger's Syndrome is now subsumed nether the category of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).
Key Takeaways
- More psychologists are involved in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorder than in any other endeavour, and those tasks are probably the virtually of import psychologists face.
- The bear on on people with a psychological disorder comes both from the illness itself and from the stigma associated with disorder.
- A psychological disorder is an ongoing dysfunctional pattern of thought, emotion, and behaviour that causes pregnant distress and that is considered deviant in that person's culture or society.
- According to the bio-psycho-social model, psychological disorders have biological, psychological, and social causes.
- It is hard to diagnose psychological disorders, although the DSM provides guidelines that are based on a category system. The DSM is frequently revised, taking into consideration new knowledge every bit well as changes in cultural norms about disorder.
- There is controversy about the diagnosis of disorders such every bit ADHD, autistic disorder, and Asperger'south disorder.
Exercises and Critical Thinking
- Practise you or your friends hold stereotypes about the mentally sick? Tin can you think of or find clips from any films or other popular media that portray mental affliction positively or negatively? Is it more or less acceptable to stereotype the mentally ill than to stereotype other social groups?
- Consider the diagnosis of ADHD, autism, and Asperger's disorder from the biological, personal, and social-cultural perspectives. Do you call up that these disorders are overdiagnosed? How might clinicians determine if ADHD is dysfunctional or sad to the individual?
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Image Attributions
Figure 13.1: "cute-dancer-past-aisha-mitchell" past Gerard Van der Leun is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND ii.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/deed.en_CA).
Figure 13.iii: Engraving of a trepanation by Peter Treveris (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Peter_Treveris_-_ engraving_of_Trepanation_for_Handywarke_of_surgeri_1525.png) is in public domain.
Figure xiii.4: Sheriff Colina Lunatic Asylum by U.S. Library of Congress, (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sheriff_Hill_Lunatic_Asylum.jpg) is in the public domain.
Figure 13.five: Philippe Pinel portrait by Anna Mérimée (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Philippe_Pinel_%281745_-_1826%29.jpg) is in the public domain. Benjamin Rush Painting by Charles Wilson Peale (http://eatables.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale.jpg) is in the public domain. Dix Dorothea portrait by U.S. Library of Congress, (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dix-Dorothea-LOC.jpg) is in the public domain.
Long Descriptions
| Disorder | Lifetime | 12-month | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Substance use disorder | Alcohol abuse or dependence | eighteen.1% | three.2% |
| Cannabis abuse or dependence | 6.eight% | 1.3% | |
| Other drug abuse or dependence (excluding Cannabis) | 4% | 0.seven% | |
| Total substance apply disorders | 21.6% | 4.4% | |
| Mood Disorder | Major Depressive Episode | eleven.iii% | iv.vii% |
| Bipolar disorder | 2.6% | 1.5% | |
| Generalized anxiety disorder | viii.vii% | 2.6% | |
| Total mood disorders | 12.vi% | 5.4% | |
| Total Mental/Substance disorders | 33.i% | x.1% | |
[Render to Table xiii.1]
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Source: https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/12-1-psychological-disorder-what-makes-a-behavior-abnormal/
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